How Much Do You Know About Medieval Europe?

In 1425, faced with climbing poverty rates, the Scottish Parliament decreed that all beggars had to carry an official, government-sanctioned badge of identification, called a "beggar's badge." In Scotland, a wandering beggar who lost his or her badge was called a "gaberlunzie," a word that may refer to the coin pouch or wallet carried by the destitute Scot.

Today, a “moment” is defined as a very brief period of time. But in the Middle Ages, “moment” had a very precise definition: 90 seconds. It was defined as one-fortieth of an hour, or one-tenth of a “point,” which was another unit of time measurement equaling 15 minutes. “Moment” made its way into modern English, but in a much less defined way than its original version.

Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī was a prominent mathematician during the Middle Ages. He introduced Hindu-Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0) and concepts of algebra to European mathematicians, creating a more universal system, which resulted in the further advancement of mathematics. The word “algebra” was derived from the word “al-jabr” from the title of his work on elementary-level algebra.

Almond milk isn’t just a modern trend — in fact, it’s been documented for use as far back as the eighth century, when it was listed in Islamic medical texts as a cough remedy and a treatment for shortness of breath. It also appears in medieval European cookbooks as early as the 13th century, when it was especially popular during Lent as a nutritious alternative to animal-based milk products.

Sometimes known as “folk football,” the medieval version of the popular sport was quite different from today’s game, and was often played with a ball made from a pig’s bladder. Entire villages would come together to try to score a goal, often destroying farmland and property in the process. Because of its unruly, violent nature, King Edward II banned the game and decreed that anyone caught playing could be imprisoned.

During the Middle Ages, swans were luxury goods equivalent to modern sports cars. But owners didn’t just admire the swans — they ate them, too. Swans were often served as the centerpiece at upper-class feasts, especially during holiday celebrations. In 1247, King Henry III of England held a Christmas feast at Winchester where 40 swans were served, much to the delight of his esteemed guests.

Clovis I founded the Frankish kingdom in the late fifth century in modern-day France, Belgium, and Germany. Under Clovis, the Frankish tribes were united for the first time and the kingdom became one of the most powerful of the early Middle Ages. The realm remained strong until the ninth century, when it was dissolved into kingdoms that formed early versions of modern-day Western European countries.

A “butt” of wine was a common unit of measurement during the Middle Ages. It was the second-largest wine cask size, equaling about 126 gallons, or half a “tun” (the largest cask size). Other common cask sizes included a “puncheon” (one-third of a tun), a “hogshead” (one-fourth of a tun), a “tierce” (one-sixth of a tun), a “barrel” (one-eighth of a tun), and a “rundlet” (one-fourteenth of a tun).

Dating back to 1308, Dante Alighieri’s epic poem “The Divine Comedy” follows the journey of a man (likely Dante) through three realms — Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise — as he visits the souls who live there. While its message was somewhat traditional (a Christian allegory of human destiny), the poem was groundbreaking in that it was written in Italian, not Latin, helping establish Italian as a literary language.

Henry VII is best known for ending the Wars of the Roses, a series of English civil wars between the rival Lancaster and York houses during the late medieval era. After three decades of war, Henry VII assumed power in 1485 as the first Tudor monarch. The Tudors controlled England for over a century, with a particularly prosperous era under the last of the five Tudor monarchs, Elizabeth I, the namesake of England’s Elizabethan era.

Rodrigo Díaz grew up in the Castilian court and was designated the military standard-bearer (general) under King Sancho II when the young knight was in his early 20s. His skill in battle helped Sancho unite the three kingdoms of Spain, but “El Cid” — "Cid" meaning "lord" or "sir" in the Andalusian dialect — was exiled when Sancho’s brother Alfonso came to power. After exile he became a well-respected mercenary for Muslim forces and later ruled the coastal city of Valencia.

In a kingdom called Al-Andalus, based in the southern city of Córdoba, Islamic rulers of the Umayyad Caliphate controlled present-day Spain for about four centuries starting in 711 CE. Under the reign of Abd al-Rahman III, the region experienced a golden age in the early 10th century, becoming a European center for medicine, architecture, and academics of all kinds. Al-Andalus fell into decline starting in 1009 due to a dispute over the throne.

The eel was an important animal in medieval Europe for a number of reasons. Often depicted in art and family crests, eels were also considered a desirable food, frequently served at banquets of kings and nobles. The city of London alone consumed so many eels that in 1392, King Richard II cut tariffs on eel imports to encourage foreign merchants to bring them in from other countries.

Leather shoes with long pointy toes became fashionable around 1330. Known as cracows, the style was thought to have originated in Krakow, Poland. The shoes were hideously impractical and reserved for nobility, who generally had to do little actual walking compared to the common people. By the mid-15th century, crakows fell from favor after King Edward IV of England banned shoe tips longer than two inches.

The humorous “Don Quixote” is widely hailed as the first novel in modern history. The story of the bumbling Don Quixote and his frail horse Rocinante introduced idioms that are still common in today’s language, including “tilting at windmills” and “the proof is in the pudding.” The former phrase means to fight an imaginary enemy, as Don Quixote mistook windmills for giants in the novel.

Known as the primary residence of the British monarchy, Windsor Castle has a 1,000-year history of royal residents. William the Conqueror chose the site of the castle and began its 16-year construction in 1070. Subsequent monarchs added and renovated the estate throughout the next millennium, eventually resulting in the picturesque, 13-acre castle and gardens that it is today.

Though they’re often depicted as fools to be laughed at for the amusement of a royal court, the real role of the court jester throughout history went beyond comedic relief. In many cases, jesters were well-educated and talented, often performing at banquets by singing, juggling, or playing an instrument. Some jesters were relied on to speak frankly to the monarch, as messengers with bad news weren’t always treated well.

The medieval period saw the birth of the university system in Europe. The first university was established in Bologna, Italy, in 1088, and it is still the oldest university in the world in continuous operation. At first, only canon and civil law were studied, but by 1200, faculties of medicine and philosophy were created. The system developed in Bologna became a model for universities across Europe.

The Bubonic Plague or “Black Death” was a pandemic that swept the globe in the Middle Ages, caused by a bacteria transmitted by the fleas on rats. The spread of the disease was rapid and deadly, killing an estimated 25 million people in Europe alone, nearly a third of the continent's population in the 14th century.

The Cistercians were a Roman Catholic monastic order established in 1098 by a group of monks who wished to live under the strictest interpretation of the Rule of St. Benedict. Cistercians became known as the “White Monks” due to the white cowl they wore over their robes. The austere order was best known for their hard manual labor, and often supported their communities through farming or wine-making.

Charlemagne became king of the Franks in 779 CE, and spent the next few decades fighting to expand his territory and spread Christianity among his subjects. In 800 CE, in recognition of his power, Pope Leo III crowned him Holy Roman Emperor, creating a huge Christian empire across Western Europe. Charlemagne is remembered as a great leader who supported scholarship and the arts.

Originally from the west German city of Mainz, Johannes Gutenberg was exiled to the city of Strasbourg, France, as a young adult. It was there that he conducted early experiments on his printing press before returning to Mainz in the late 1440s to complete his work and open a print shop. Gutenberg’s revolutionary press iterated on previous wood printing techniques by incorporating a metal alloy and an oil-based ink.

William Wallace rose to fame during the First War of Scottish Independence, beginning in 1296. Wallace’s reputation as a skilled general was created at the Battle of Stirling Bridge, where he achieved victory over a much larger battalion of English troops by forcing them to cross a narrow bridge. He’s known today as one of Scotland’s greatest national heroes.

The Crusades were a series of religious wars between Christians and Muslims over contested sites in the Holy Land. Richard the Lionheart is best known for his role in the Third Crusade (1187-1192) in which he fought the great Muslim leader, Saladin. Richard recaptured the city of Acre, but failed to take Jerusalem. He also agreed to a peace treaty with Saladin, bringing a (temporary) end to hostilities.

The Magna Carta was the first charter to put down in writing that the king and his government were not above the law. It was signed by King John on June 15, 1215, in an effort to bring an end to a political crisis caused by a dispute with rebel barons. Although neither side stuck to the agreement, the Magna Carta is recognized as a key milestone in the development of English law.

William, Duke of Normandy, was named the successor of English King Edward the Confessor in 1051. So when Harold, Duke of Wessex, was crowned instead in 1066, William invaded England, and his decisive victory at the Battle of Hastings won him the throne. The social and political ramifications of the Norman Conquest changed England by closely aligning it with the rest of Western Europe and abolishing the old aristocracy.

One of the most famous explorers in the world, Italian merchant Marco Polo served the powerful Mongol emperor Kublai Khan as a messenger and tax collector, and in turn, Polo explored many parts of China and Southeast Asia during the Middle Ages. His personal account of his journey, “The Travels of Marco Polo,” made him a household name after it was published in 1300.

With a name like the Hundred Years’ War, you’d expect the conflict between France and England to have lasted for exactly a century. Instead, the war stretched 116 years, from 1337 to 1453. The war was a series of conflicts over the question of succession to the French throne, beginning when King Charles IV of France died in 1328 without an heir.

Widely held as the first important piece of English literature, Chaucer’s epic poem describes a group of pilgrims making a trip to a shrine at Canterbury. To pass time, each member of the group — which includes a knight, cook, and friar — would tell a story. Chaucer intended the full poem to consist of over a hundred stories, but he passed away in 1400 CE after working on it for 13 years.

As a teenager, Joan of Arc became convinced that God had chosen her to help France to victory against the English. Answering the call, she dressed as a man and led the French army in a great victory over the Anglo-Burgundians, breaking the siege of Orléans. Unfortunately, she was later caught, tried as a witch, and burned at the stake. Joan of Arc’s piety and bravery were recognized in 1920 when she was made a saint.